£éŋωi verbs inflect for tense, aspect, and voice, and agree with the subject of the sentence according to number and person. There are nine tenses, three voices, and four aspects. The infinitive inflects only for voice and aspect. Some verbs (especially auxiliary verbs) are defective, meaning that not every possible inflection is valid.
In addition to these inflections, there are a large number of auxiliary verbs used to convey modality (or mood). They are divided into four classes: Evidential, Epistemic, Deontic, and Strong. This grouping is semi-arbitrary, and is used to determine word order when mixing auxiliary verbs of different classes.
The tenses of £éŋωi are two-dimensional. There are past, present and future forms, each of which has anterior, simple, and posterior forms. The four aspects are perfective, habitual, stative, and progressive. The voices are active, passive, and reciprocal voice.
£éŋωi verbal inflection falls into multiple paradigms, much like modern languages such as Latin or French. Most verbs can be classified into one of 5 conjugations; a few are irregular.
1st Conjugation
Verbs of the 1st conjugation end in –uré or –oré in the active perfective infinitive. Most such verbs fall into the 1st conjugation, though there are some exceptions. An example of a 1st conjugation verb is ǿsuré (to eat).
Finite Forms
Remove the -ré infinitive ending, then apply the appropriate suffixes from the following tables, in order:
| Active | Passive | Reciprocal | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perfective | -t | -l | -m |
| Progressive | -sp | -st | -z |
| Stative | -s | -σ | -q |
| Habitual | -n | -sl | -sc |
| Past | Present | Future | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Anterior | -e | -o | -w |
| Simple | -u | -á | -ú |
| Posterior | -í | -a | -ø |
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -s | -z |
| 2nd person | -t | -d |
| 3rd person | -f | -v |
For example, you could translate “I had been eating” as “ǿsuspes”. It is active and progressive, so the first suffix applied is -sp; it is past anterior (or pluperfect), so the second suffix applied is -e; and it is 1st person singular, so the final suffix is -s.
Infinitives
To conjugate the infinitive, insert the appropriate infix just before the -ré:
| Perfective | Progressive | Stative | Habitual | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Active | — | -ʒa- | -þi- | -zza- |
| Passive | -ŋẃ- | -lǿ- | -ŋŋẃ- | -nnẃ- |
| Reciprocal | -vu- | -tu- | -vvu- | -ffu- |
2nd Conjugation
Verbs of the 2nd conjugation end in –ẃré or eré in the active perfective infinitive. Most such verbs fall into the 2nd conjugation, though there are some exceptions. In particular, to be a 2nd conjugation verb, this ending must be preceded by consonant that is preceded by a vowel. These verbs undergo ablaut in the stem to mark the aspect. An example of a 2nd conjugation verb is gýωẃré (to give).
There are two separate ablauts, the vowel ablaut and the consonant ablaut. In perfective aspect, the simple stem is used unchanged. For progressive aspect, only the vowel mutates, while in habitual aspect only the consonant is changed. Both changes occur for the stative aspect.
The vowel ablaut shifts vowels forward and sometimes upward. All possible changes are listed here: ẃ→o, w→ý, á→e, a→y, ǿ→u, ø→é, ý→i, y→e, ó→u, o→í, é→i, e→i, ú→u, u→í, í→i, i→o
The consonant ablaut replaces glides with a similar voiced fricative (ω→v, ƴ→ʒ, r→z, l→z, ʃ→x) and clicks with their secondary articulation (ƫh→h, ƫŋ →ŋ). Nasals, affricates, fricatives, and trills are replaced with a similar stop (f→p, [vmƒ]→b, [sþ]→t, [znřð]→d, [σψ]→q, [ʒθ]→j, [kφ]→c, [xδŋ]→g, ɖ→γ, h→ɔ). Stops are either affricatized (if possible - t→þ, d→ð, c→φ, γ→δ, ɔ→h, q→ψ, j→θ), voiced, or devoiced (p→b, b→p, ξ→γ, γ→ξ).
In addition, the final vowel (the ẃ or e of the ending) mutates to indicate voice. In passive voice, ẃ goes to w and e goes to y; in reciprocal voice, ẃ goes to ø and e goes to ý.
All these changes apply equally to the finite forms and the infinitive. If you’re conjugating a finite form, you then add remove the -ré suffix and add the appropriate suffixes from the following tables, in order:
| Past | Present | Future | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Anterior | -te | -ni | -ce |
| Simple | -ne | -no | -ná |
| Posterior | -λe | -né | -na |
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -s | -ns |
| 2nd person | -t | -nt |
| 3rd person | — | -n |
For example, you could translate “We were regularly given food” as “givenins ωítíli”. The active perfective infinitive is “gýωẃré”. The adverb “regularly” can be interpreted as indicating stative aspect, so apply both mutations to get “givẃré”, which is the active stative infinitive. The sentence is passive, so apply the voice mutation to get “giveré”, the passive stative infinitive. Then remove the -ré. The tense is present anterior, so add the -ni suffix, and it is first person plural, so finish with the -ns suffix.
3rd Conjugation
Most 3rd conjugation verbs end in -iré, though there are a few that don’t, and some that do are not 3rd conjugation verbs. The forms of a 3rd conjugation verb are derived from three unrelated base forms - the three perfective infinitives. However, the same derivational processes are applied to each base form.
An example of a 3rd conjugation verb is liré (to lay/lie); its passive infinitive is lwré, and its reciprocal infinitive is lǿré. Note that not all 3rd conjugations have a simple ablaut in the passive and reciprocal infinitives; some are entirely different.
Finite Forms
Remove the -ré infinitive ending, then apply the appropriate suffixes from the following tables, in order:
| Past | Present | Future | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Anterior | -σ | -s | -ss |
| Simple | -f | -m | -mm |
| Posterior | -q | -t | -þ |
| Perfective | Progressive | Stative | Habitual |
|---|---|---|---|
| -ǿ | -a | -i | -ó |
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st person | -m | -g |
| 2nd person | -s | -∫u |
| 3rd person | -t | -nt |
For example, you could translate “He used to lie in the forest” as “hǿ lifót ǿ zílbís”. It is active, so start with the active perfective infinitive, liré, and remove the -ré suffix. It is past simple, so add the -f suffix, and it is habitual, so add the -ó suffix. Finally, it is third person singular, so finish off with the -t suffix. The noun “zílbís” here is in the accusative case, since it is the object of the preposition “ǿ”.
Infinitives
The infinitives are much simpler - just insert the appropriate infix just before the -ré: -ri- for progressive aspect, -cá- for stative aspect, or -qú- for habitual aspect.
4th Conjugation
Most 4th conjugation verbs end in either –øré or –óré in the perfective infinitive. As with the 3rd conjugation, these verbs have four base forms — the four active infinitives. In many respects they are conceptually like the 3rd conjugation verbs, though they have clearly different suffixes.
An example of a 4th conjugation word is sacóré (to ride, to mount). The progressive infinitive is sacƴaré, the stative infinitive is nořuré, and the habitual infinitive is monƫŋiré.
Finite Forms
Remove the -ré infinitive ending, then apply the appropriate suffixes from the following tables, in order:
| Past | Present | Future | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Anterior | –ll | –mƴ | –ɔ |
| Simple | –ɖ | –þ | –ff |
| Posterior | –λλ | –ŋŋ | –t |
| 1st person | 2nd person | 3rd person | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Active | -u | -ǿ | -i |
| Passive | -im | -un | -wŋ |
| Reciprocal | -aki | -inw | -øpẃ |
For example, you could translate “I was riding to Anaglosia” as “sacƴaɖu Anáglǿsiín”. The aspect is progressive, so start with the active progressive infinitive, sacƴaré, and remove the -ré suffix. The tense is past simple, so add the –ɖ suffix, and it is 1st person singular, so add the -u suffix. The object, Anáglǿsiín, is in the dative case, so no preposition is needed.
Infinitives
The infinitives are much simpler - just insert the appropriate infix just before the -ré: -li- for passive or -ma- for reciprocal.
5th Conjugation
The 5th conjugation contains defective auxiliary verbs. They lack inflections for tense, voice and person; they only inflect for aspect and number, both in agreement with the main verb. They don’t even have infinitive forms, so the base form is the perfective singular. 5th declension verbs are always at least two syllables and inflect by ablaut only. An example of a 5th declension verb is rẃgωacín (which is used for expressing doubt).
The stressed vowel mutates to indicate aspect. In progressive or stative aspect, it is lengthened. In stative and habitual aspect, it mutates as follows: i→y, í→i, u→u, ú→u, e→i, é→í, o→u, ó→ú, y→i, ý→í, ø→u, ǿ→ú, a→e, á→é, w→o, ẃ→ó
To indicate the plural, the rightmost lax vowel becomes tense. In the romanization, this means losing an acute accent.
For example, you could translate “They might go” as “rẃgωacin ẃlimǿnt”. Here the only change in the auxiliary verb is losing the acute accent on the final syllable, since it is perfective aspect and plural. The active perfective infinitive for “to go” is “ẃliré”, and it is a 3rd conjugation verb.
Irregular Verbs
There are several irregular verbs. Most are actually fairly regular but constitute a paradigm of their own, but a few, in particular ẃré (to be), are entirely suppletive.
There are also some verbs that are nearly regular but have some irregular forms; such verbs are classed with the conjugation they almost fit into, for example an “irregular 3rd declension verb”. These irregularities are usually an ablaut in the stem in certain tenses, voices, or aspects.
Verbal Valence
The tables in this post assume verbs with two or three arguments, ie transitive or bitransitive verbs. £éŋωi also has impersonal and intransitive verbs, which can use the same tables but have fewer forms. In addition, there are linking verbs, which also have fewer forms even when they take two arguments, because the second argument has a different function than it would in a regular transitive verb.
Intransitive verbs cannot be put in the reciprocal voice, since that requires at least two arguments. Some can however be put in the passive voice, resulting in an impersonal passive. Only verbs indicating an action done by the volition of the subject can be used in an impersonal passive construction.
Impersonal verbs and linking verbs cannot be put in the passive or reciprocal voices. Impersonal verbs additionally omit the subject agreement suffixes in their conjugation, since they have no subject to agree with.
Compound Forms
By adding one or more auxiliary verbs that agree with the main verb in number and aspect, you can form a large variety of different verbal moods. A plain verb is always a realis mood (the indicative mood); auxiliary verbs (with the exception of the emphatic dẃdẃʃi) change the mood to an irrealis mood.
Most auxiliary verbs can be classified as one of evidential, epistemic, or deontic. In addition, there are four strong auxiliary verbs which don’t fit this classification. They are “ospesi”, the conditional; “sáωáni”, the hypothetical; “dẃdẃʃi”, the emphatic; and “vamos”, the imperative. Other auxiliary verbs are sometimes referred to as weak auxiliaries.
A verb chain may contain up to five separate verbs, assuming no coordination is present. If there is a strong auxiliary verb, it always comes first. Then there may be an evidential auxiliary verb, indicating the source of the information given by the sentence. Next there can be an epistemic auxiliary verb, indicating degree of confidence. Then there can be a deontic auxiliary verb. Finally, the main verb always comes last. All auxiliaries agree with the main verb in aspect and number.
Auxiliary verbs are an open class in £éŋωi, though the strong auxiliary verbs are fixed. Thus it’s not possible to list every auxiliary verb.
Verbal Particles
There are a number of clitics that can be used to modify the meaning of a verb chain.
Negation
The prefix né- is used for verbal negation. There are two ways to do this. A weak auxiliary verb can take the prefix to invert its meaning; for example, polim means “can” while népolim means “cannot”. The clitic can also be used to negate an entire verb chain. To do this, you apply the prefix to the strong auxiliary verb, if present, or to the main verb otherwise.
Coordination
A limited form of coordination can be done with the verbal conjunction clitic, tu-, and the verbal disjunction clitics, ká- (exclusive) and nu- (inclusive). These clitics can link a maximum of two verbs and are applied to the second verb only. Weak auxiliary verbs of differing classes can be coordinated, as long as they appear in the right order. Strong auxiliary verbs can’t take these particles, but the main verb can. In the case of main verbs, the two verbs may be separated by a complement for the first verb.
Magic
£éŋωi is the medium for one uncommon type of spellcasting in the Pentalithia universe. Such mages cast spells by describing, in a special form of £éŋωi, the effect they want. Then the magic of the language changes reality so that the words are literally true.
This special form of the language is obtained by applying certain prefixes to the verbs. For finite forms, apply the prefix abi- to the main verb; if there’s a strong auxiliary verb, also apply the prefix cabrẃ- to it. Both prefixes lose their final vowel when applied to words beginning with a vowel. For infinitives, apply the or- prefix. This becomes ori– before h, ł, ω, ƴ, and ƒ, and orẃ- before r, ŕ, ɖ, γ, and ξ.
Verbal Derivations
There are a number of derivational affixes used to produce nouns, adjectives, or other verbs from a given root verb. Most of these processes are universal and can apply to any verb.
Inversion
The prefix ci- inverts the meaning of a verb. This is different from negation; it indicates a reversal of the action described by the verb, such as in the English pair dress/undress. Another example: “ẃliré” means “to go”, so “ciẃliré” means “to come”.
Multiplicity
The prefix ωǿ- indicates that the action is being repeated, while ni- indicates it is being performed for the first time. For example, you might use the ωǿ- prefix to translate “She rewrote the chapter”. The verb ríturé (to write) is a 1st conjugation verb, so such a translation would be something like “qá ωǿrítutuf brílná”.
Other verb prefixes
The prefix γá- indicates error in the action specified by the verb, similar to the English prefix mis- (as in “mishandle” or “mishear”). For example, to translate “He wrote it down wrong” in reference to an account of some event, you might say “γámeqẃne ki”. The verb used here is meqẃré (to record), a 2nd conjugation verb. The word “ki” is the 3rd person singular neuter accusative pronoun (ie it just means “it”).
The prefix ŋʃu- indicates cooperativeness in the action. For example, you might use it to translate “We did our homework”, but only if you were helping each other with said homework. Such a translation would be something like “sωaσ ŋʃuagiqil sωezi esganíz”. The verb used here is agáré (to do or act), which is an irregular verb; the form of the verb used for this example is the the active perfective past simple 1st person plural form, “agiqil”. The word “esganíz” is the plural form of a word meaning “assignment”, which is suitable for translating “homework”; “sωaσ” and “sωez” are the nominative and genitive forms of the 1st person plural inclusive pronoun (ie “we” and “ours”, respectively), and the -i suffix makes the genitive an adjective.
Verbal adjectives
A participle can be derived from any simple progressive 3rd person singular verb form by applying suffixes as if it were an adjective. For example, the active present participle means “something that is doing”.
A completive can be derived from any simple perfective 3rd person singular verb form by applying suffixes as if it were an adjective. For example, the passive past completive means “something that has done”.
The gerundive and abilitative are formed from an infinitive by removing the -ré ending and applying the suffix -polǿ. The gerundive, meaning “something deserving of doing”, is formed from a progressive infinitive, while the abilitative, meaning “something that is able to do”, is formed from a perfective infinitive. Both can be either active or passive.
As an example, consider the verb ǿsuré (to eat). The phrase “ǿsustáfi ωítíli” would mean something like “the food that is being eaten”. (The suffix -i is the most basic neuter adjectival suffix.) The phrase “ǿsuláfi ωítíli” would mean something like “the food that has been eaten”. And the phrase “ǿsupolǿ ωítíli” could be translated as “the edible food”, or more literally “the food that can be eaten”.
Verbal Noun Derivations
The gerund is, like the participle, derived from a simple progressive 3rd person singular form of the verb. In the case of the gerund, this is done by applying 2nd declension noun endings (such as –ý for the nominative singular). The gerund represents the simple act of performing the verb. For example, “ǿsustáfý” would mean “eating”, in the sense of “the act of eating”.
The actor can be formed by removing the –ré suffix from the active perfective infinitive and appending the suffix –dirǿ in its place. The receptor can be formed from the passive perfective infinitive in the same way. They are first declension nouns, meaning respectively “one who does” and “one who is done”. For example, “cucuré” (to run) is a 1st conjugation verb, and thus “cucudirǿ” means “runner”.
The processor can be formed by removing the –ré suffix from the active progressive infinitive or the passive progressive infinitive, and appending the suffix –tíný in its place. This declines as a 2nd declension noun, roughly meaning “the process of doing” and “the process of being done”. For example, “frǿzuré” (to freeze) is a 1st conjugation verb, so “frǿztíný” refers to the process of phase transition from liquid to solid. It would probably be translated to English as “freezing”.
The conceptual can be formed by removing the –ré suffix from the active stative infinitive or the passive stative infinitive and appending 1st declension masculine or feminine endings. These are 1st declension neuter nouns which roughly mean “the concept or focus of doing” or “the concept or focus of being done”. The meaning of this form is often inconsistent across different verbs; in some cases the –ẃ and –ǿ forms are synonymous and a matter of personal choice, while in other cases the –ǿ form refers to a broader concept and the –ẃ form to a narrower concept. However, it’s nearly always used to refer to an area of knowledge related to the verb.